Eyes in the Sky Map Amazon on the Ground

Looking at a rainforest from high in the sky, you might think all the trees look about the same.

But they are not.

Take, for example, the Amazon rainforest in South America. Research shows that the Amazon’s biological diversity—the huge number of plants and animals living there—is more of a mix than experts believed. It turns out the rainforest has many species of trees and even different kinds of forests.

The Amazon covers an area of about 7 million square kilometers. It lies within the borders of nine countries: Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana, which belongs to France.

About 60 percent of the rainforest falls within Brazil.

For about 150 years, researchers have explored the Amazon. They searched under its tall trees to study the many plants growing there.

Ashaninka Indian girls walk through a forest path as they return to their village after shopping in the nearby village in Peru's Amazon region, Oct. 1,2013. (AP Photo/Rodrigo Abd)

Greg Asner has done that too. He is the principal investigator for the Carnegie Airborne Observatory (CAO) program.

Asner studied the plants and then, with his team, developed a tool to identify what is growing in the Amazon rainforest. They use an airplane equipped with a high-technology laboratory to create maps of the area.

When the plane flew over Peru, the team learned there are many more -- and different kinds of -- forests than was documented before.

Researchers once thought the western Amazon had three to five different forests. Then, Asner notes, his team mapped the area in the CAO aircraft.

Map of Peru Showing Different Tree Species Identified by CAO

“We flew over and we mapped 36 distinct forest types. And so what we did, we just increased the diversity of the region by tenfold and that’s important because the region, the Peruvian Andes and Amazon, just like all the other countries that occupy that region, are rapidly developing.”

Carnegie Airborne Observatory (CAO) inside the airplane and laboratory used the map Peru and the Amazon rainforest. (Courtesy Greg Asner)

The CAO is equipped with airborne laser-guided imaging spectroscopy. This technology enables Asner and his team to take three-dimensional images of the forest far below. These pictures give the appearance of length, width and depth. They have bright colors and look like modern art paintings. Yet they show different tree species.

Three-dimensional image using laser-guided imaging spectroscopy taken by CAO shows natural color of trees in one hectare of rainforest

Three-dimensional enhanced image using laser-guided imaging spectroscopy taken by CAO shows different species of trees in same hectare of rainforest

Asner says the team is gathering more than just pictures of plants.

“And at the same time we’re able to assess the health, composition and types of trees that are there, from their chemical signatures.”

He says getting chemical information on the trees is like a doctor taking blood from a patient. The images tell the researchers about the health of the forests, and give them genetic information, too.

But how can you get chemical information from trees while flying above them?

Asner says the CAO aircraft uses sunlight as the main measurement tool. The sunlight reflects off the tops of the trees. With the equipment on the plane, they can measure infrared light – the light that cannot be seen.

“This is in the shortwave infrared. So we can’t see this with the naked eye. But we are able to read the molecular composition of the tree canopy.”

Old-growth Amazon tree canopy is seen in Tapajos National Forest, Brazil.(AP Photo)

This information helps them understand how the plant species and forests change in different areas.

Asner says they can use airborne laser-guided imaging spectroscopy over a huge area that has never been mapped. In this case, it is 76 million hectares in the Amazon.

The Carnegie team joined with the Peruvian Ministry of Environment to study that country’s forests. Asner says this technology is still new to science, and it can help officials watch over and protect the forests.

“The application to Peru is really a big step forward because it tells us that we can use this still-new approach to map the composition of forests, in this case,and use that information to do better forest management, conservation and planning for future changes that we know the region is undergoing.”

He says their maps help researchers and government officials make decisions based on the actual biodiversity of each area. No longer are people treating the Amazon rainforest “like a big green carpet” – one that is the same everywhere.

The view of the Amazon forest looking down from the tree top. (Greg Asner)

Researchers will be busy because they noticed plant species that are little known, or completely unknown, in the forest communities.

The Carnegie team is now working with Equador to map its countryside. The images will help Ecuadorean officials preserve their forests.

The next step is to take the technology even higher—to orbit the Earth. Then researchers may observe the biodiversity not just of the Amazon, but the whole planet.

The orbiting satellite would remap the entire Earth every 30 days and measure the health of its biodiversity.

Biodiversity is important to the health of the planet, Asner explains. It is the “fabric” that is under all the planet’s systems, like water and food.

“So where the different species are and what types of species we have actually affects all the major processes that regulate our climate.”

So, Asner adds, finding ways to watch the Earth will help researchers make better decisions on how to save more species and help stop destruction of our planet.

I’m Anne Ball.

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Words in This Story

biodiversity – n. the existence of many different kinds of plants and animals in an environment

tenfold – adj. ten times as much or many

laser – n. a device that produces a narrow and powerful beam of light that has many special uses in medicine, industry, etc.

spectroscopy – n. using a tool to measure different properties of light.

assess – v. to make a judgment about (something)

reflect – v. of light, sound, etc. to move in one direction, hit a surface, and then quickly move in a different and usually opposite direction

infrared – adj. producing or using rays of light that cannot be seen and that are longer than rays that produce red light

shortwave – n. a radio wave with a wavelength between 10 and 100 meters

canopy – n. the highest layer of branches in a forest or on a tree

conservation – n. the protection of animals, plants, and natural resources

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How Free Is 'Free College?'

Some people say the United States higher education system is the best in the world. But the cost of a college education in the U.S. can be very high -- about 70 percent of students graduate with some debt. In 2014, the total amount of that debt in the U.S. reached about $1.2 trillion.

Norway, Finland, Germany, Mexico and Brazil are very different countries. But they all have one thing in common: citizens can attend public universities for little to no cost.

That is why some American lawmakers are looking to other countries as models for change. During his 2016 presidential campaign, Senator Bernie Sanders said the U.S needed to offer free college. Sanders’ presidential campaign was unsuccessful. But he is not alone in the fight for free education.

In 2014, Tennessee became the first state to provide free community college to recent high school graduates. Community colleges are smaller, public schools that usually offer two-year degree programs. The schools also provide general education classes at low cost to students who plan to transfer to a four-year college.

Earlier this month, Tennessee reported a 30 percent increase in the number of students attending community college for the first time.

Oregon also has a program like Tennessee’s. In fall of 2016, the Oregon program paid for at least part of the cost for 6,745 students to attend community college.

The idea of free college is spreading in the U.S. Last month, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo announced his own plan. It centers on families making less than $125,000 a year. It would permit their children to attend the state’s public universities for free.

Officials say Cuomo’s plan could cost as much as $163 million per year by 2019.

Richard Vedder is director of the Center for College Affordability and Productivity, a research organization. He feels some New Yorkers may not like an increase in taxes to pay for Cuomo’s plan and could move to different states. He also thinks it is fair to ask students to pay for some of the cost of college.

"First of all, the students are the primary beneficiaries of the college education. Most of them, after college, will earn a good deal more income than they did before going to college. A lot of the students who go to college can afford to pay tuition. The tuition fee is not an obstacle that keeps them from attending. So, asking them to pay tuition fees seems to be reasonable since they are getting a high return on the investment."

Vedder says offering free education at public universities could also hurt competition. Vedder says it could make private schools less appealing to students.

In the case of Oregon, something similar may already be happening. Public university administrators in the state reported lower numbers of new students in 2016. This might suggest students are choosing the free community colleges over four-year degree programs.

Vedder also points to already existing state and federal financial aid programs, like the Pell grant. Pell grants provide money to low-income college students. The students do not have to pay the money back.

Officials in the state of Rhode Island say such help is not enough. A recent survey from the state’s education department showed that 90 percent of Rhode Island high schoolers want to attend college. However, the study showed only 65 percent actually do so. Cost was the number one reason students gave for not attending college.

But Rhode Island has a plan that might help. In January, Governor Gina Raimondo proposed a plan for two free years of study at the Community College of Rhode Island, the University of Rhode Island or Rhode Island College to any high school graduate living in the state.

Kevin Gallagher is the governor’s deputy chief of staff. He says offering free college is the right thing to do because higher education will be required for most jobs in the future.

"If you’re thinking about college as a luxury that only a few should be able to afford, then sure you could say, ‘Okay, this isn’t essential.’ But from the governor’s perspective, we can’t afford not to make this commitment. We know that in Rhode Island, and in the United States, a high school diploma is simply not enough…You have to have some education beyond high school in order to get a good-paying job."

Governor Raimondo’s proposal is planned to start in 2018. It would cost $10 million in the first year. Gallagher says the price is expected to rise to $30 million a year by 2022. The official notes that this would only be a small part of the state’s current $9 billion budget.

Gallagher also believes that people will see the value in having an educated population. Educated Rhode Islanders will make more money but also provide more to the state in tax payments, he says.

Robert Kelchen is a professor of higher education at Seton Hall University in New Jersey. He researches higher education finance and accountability policy. Kelchen says he thinks there are important questions still to be answered about the Rhode Island proposal.

"One thing to know first is that free tuition does not mean that students will avoid debt. For a student going to a public college, the other parts of higher education -- like books, transportation and housing -- are a much larger part of the overall price than tuition. So, students need to realize that in most cases they’ll have to take on some debt."

Kelchen also says the plan may not help low income students as much as middle- and higher-income students. He argues more money should be spent on low-income students instead of all students in general.

I’m Pete Musto.

______________________________________________________________

Words in This Story

graduate – v. to earn a degree or diploma from a school, college or university

transfer – v. to stop going to one school and begin going to another

beneficiaries – n. a person, group or organization that is helped by something

income – n. money that is earned from work, investments or business

afford – v. to be able to pay for something

tuition – n. money that is paid to a school for the right to study there

obstacle – n. something that makes it difficult to do something

financial – adj. relating to money

luxury – n. something that is expensive and not necessary

essential – adj. extremely important and necessary

perspective – n. a way of thinking about and understanding something such as a particular issue or life in general

commitment – n. a promise to do or give something

accountability – n. the act of being required to explain actions or decisions to someone

realize – n. to understand or become aware of something

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Undocumented US Immigrants Fear Deportation

Cindy lives with her three children in a small bedroom in an apartment near a major American city. Two other adults also live in the apartment.

Cindy asked VOA to use just her first name for this story. She is not in the United States legally. She was born in Guatemala and brought to the United States when she was five years old.

So, Cindy considers the U.S. home.

“Even though I don’t have papers, I feel that I’m from here. Of course, I’m proud of having been born in Guatemala, but I wasn’t raised there. I don’t know the culture over there. I don’t know what it’s like to live there.”

She has worked since she was 17, holding different jobs. She is now 29 and pregnant. Cindy says she wants to stay in the United States so she and her family can have a good life. Her children were born in the United States, so they are citizens. Cindy says she is more scared than she has ever been of being deported to Guatemala. She says she wants to become a legal resident of the United States.

Cindy is among an estimated 11 million people living in the United States without government permission. Experts say more than half of them are from Mexico and other Latin American countries.

Last week, the Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) agency, part of the Department of Homeland Security, carried out raids around the country. They arrested 680 people. The agency said it was targeting people who had been found guilty of crimes while in the United States. ICE said the raids were no different than those that took place during the Obama administration.

In a statement this week, Homeland Security Secretary John Kelly said “President Trump has been clear in affirming the critical mission of DHS in protecting the nation, and directed our department to focus on removing illegal aliens who have violated our immigration laws.”

Trump promised often during the campaign to stop illegal immigration. He said if he became president he would deport up to three million people involved in criminal activity. On January 25th, he signed a presidential order that expanded the powers of ICE to detain immigrants.

On Sunday, Trump wrote a message on the social networking site Twitter. He said “The crackdown on illegal criminals is merely the keeping of my campaign promise. Gang members, drug dealers (and) others are being removed!”

 Follow

Donald J. Trump 

✔@realDonaldTrump

The crackdown on illegal criminals is merely the keeping of my campaign promise. Gang members, drug dealers & others are being removed!

6:34 PM - 12 Feb 2017

 
•  29,80429,804 Retweets
 
•  150,439150,439 likes

His message seemed to differ from what ICE said about its actions: that they were usual -- no different from what the agency did when Barack Obama was president.

The Department of Homeland Security said 25 percent of those arrested last week had not been found guilty of criminal acts in the United States but were in the country illegally. It said their cases will be examined individually. It said they may be deported even if they are not criminals.

Angelica Satas is the executive director of the Coalition for Humane Immigrant Rights of Los Angeles. She said she has been watching the operations of ICE for 30 years. She said last week’s raids were “not normal.” She said many more people called her organization than usual while a raid was taking place in Los Angeles. She said some people were being seized in their homes and as they traveled to their jobs.

Many immigrants are afraid. There are reports that ICE will be setting up checkpoint stations to stop and seize immigrants who entered the United States without permission.

Many people from Latin America live in the Columbia Heights area of Washington, DC. VOA spoke with some of them as they waited at a Catholic Charities center for free food. They said they feared being deported.

Rodrigo Aguirre works at Catholic Charities. He says he has noticed a difference from a year ago.

"We're seeing people just become a little bit more afraid about asking for help. Because they are fearful of the consequences -- fearful that their name might be given to immigration and then eventually deported."

VOA spoke to a Salvadoran woman named Hemelina while she was waiting for free food from the center. She said she came to the United States illegally last year. She said she fled El Salvador because her husband often hit her and she feared gangs -- groups of criminals.

Smita Dazzo is an immigration lawyer for Catholic Charities. She says Hemelina could be given asylum if she can show a judge proof that she would be harmed if she is returned to El Salvador. Dazzo says most of the immigrants she talks to have what the law calls a well-founded fear of persecution in their home country.

“The majority of people that are coming here really are fleeing for their lives. It's, it's really, really scary for these people and some of them really honestly feel like they have no choice."

Dazzo says Trump’s election has caused many people in the U.S. illegally to begin the process of getting permission to stay.

But supporters of Trump’s immigration policy say limits are required because there are so many people who want to come to, or stay in, the U.S.

Dan Stein is among these voices. He heads the Federation for American Immigration Reform. He says that in the past 40 years the United States has had the highest level of immigration in its history. He says that cannot continue.

"All countries have to deal in the real world. And there are simply far more people who would like to move to a country like the United States than we can possibly handle and still provide a good quality of life and a shot at the American dream for people who are here today.”

It is not clear what will happen to the millions of people in the United States illegally who have not done a crime while they are here. They have families and jobs. Immigration activists say the solution is a law that lets them stay.

Dazzo says “there are a lot of people who come here as children that are really upstanding citizens. They work hard, they’re family oriented. They’re exactly what you hope that Americans are.”

I’m Christopher Jones-Cruise.

________________________________________________________

Words in This Story

papers – expression immigration documents that show a person has permission to be in a country

deport – v. to force (a person who is not a citizen) to leave a country

resident – n. someone who lives in a particular place

affirm – v. to show a strong belief in or dedication to (something, such as an important idea)

critical – adj. extremely important

mission – n. a task or job that someone is given to do

focus – v. to direct your attention or effort at something specific (often + on)

crackdown – n. a serious attempt to punish people for doing something that is not allowed; an increased effort to enforce a law or rule

merely – adv. used to describe the only reason for something or the only effect of something

gang – n. a group of criminals

persecute – v. to treat (someone) cruelly or unfairly especially because of race or religious or political beliefs

handle – v. to do the work required for something; to deal with (a person, situation, etc.) successfully

upstanding – adj. honest and respectable

oriented – adj. designed to appeal to a certain kind of people; interested in a particular thing, activity, etc.

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Using 5,000-Year-Old Chinese Recipe to create ancient Beer

Most college students would love to get an assignment like the one Madeline Ota recently received at Stanford University.

She and her classmates were asked to make beer in their dorm rooms.

But before you get too excited, you need to know that it was for a class called The Archaeology of Food. And the assignment was to make beer according to a 5,000-year-old Chinese recipe.

“I think it was a bit different than beers that you would buy in the store because it only had a week to ferment, and I think that is one of the biggest differences that you would notice in taste. Because after only a week, alcoholic content isn’t very strong.”

Ota and her classmates made two kinds of ancient beer, some of which are still being made by indigenous people today. One of the beers was made by grinding grains like wheat, millet or barley.

The other was made using a root known as manioc, or cassava, in different parts of the world. The students chewed the root and then spit it into glass containers. Their saliva began the fermentation process.

Water and heat were carefully added to each mixture.

Ota said she has a new appreciation for what goes into making the beer people buy at stores or at the local bar.

“This is not something we should take for granted when we go and pick up something from the store. And you know, that doesn’t just apply to beer, but kind of any sort of processed food. There is a whole story behind how this got to where it is, how people produced it, how they cooked it...”

Their professor, Li Liu, discovered the old Chinese recipe.

Liu and a graduate student, Jiajing Wang, “reverse engineered” their beer recipe based on substances found in clay pots from northeast China. That means they studied the residue and made guesses as to what the original ingredients might have been.

The researchers found evidence of barley, an important grain in making beer today. Until Liu and Wang did their research, most historians thought barley arrived in China more recently.

A close-up shot of the beer Stanford students recently made following an ancient Chinese recipe.

“Again, that’s where experimental archaeology comes in. Because when you have this small residue from an archaeological artifact, you know, you don’t have the full story. You may have parts of a bigger story, but you don’t know how those parts necessarily fit together. So experimental archaeology is really cool because it allows you to experiment with those processes and see which ones are the most successful.”

Ota said we can learn a lot about ancient cultures by learning about their food and beer.

“You know, when the first people started actually having farms and agricultural societies, very soon after that they actually started making the first alcohols using various techniques. Having alcohol became a very culturally significant and religious experience for many communities and it went on to become an important part of their society.”

Because the class treated the beer making like a science project, they were able to add their information to the scientific record. Every ingredient was carefully measured. Every degree of heat was noted.

Thanks to the students, there is now a very specific record for how to make these ancient beers. In the past, the instructions might have been “fill the pot with water,” Ota said. But no one ever knew how big the pot was or how much water was used.

But the most important question is: How did the beer taste?

The beer made from grain, Ota said, was fruity, like a cider. The one from manioc root smelled so bad – like cheese – she didn’t want to try it.

I’m Dan Friedell.

Words in This Story

assignment– n. a job or duty that is given to someone : a task someone is required to do

dorm – n. a building on a school campus that has rooms where students can live

archaeology – n. a science that deals with past human life and activities by studying the bones, tools, etc., of ancient people

ferment – v. to go through a chemical change that results in the production of alcohol

take for granted – v. to fail to properly notice or appreciate (someone or something that is helpful or important to you)

residue – n. a usually small amount of something that remains after a process has been completed or a thing has been removed

artifact – n. a simple object (such as a tool or weapon) that was made by people in the past

cool – adj. often used to show approval in a general way

cider – n. an alcoholic drink made from apples

bar – n. a building or room where alcoholic drinks and sometimes food are served

reverse engineer – v. to study the parts of (something) to see how it was made and how it works so that you can make something that is like it

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Singles were deceited by Stolen Pictures throung Dating wedsites

Millions of single people turn to the Internet to meet other singles.

Many use dating websites in hopes of finding that special someone. But there are some people who want nothing more than to trick singles, using their desire for a loving relationship to get their money.

VOA recently investigated one such effort. Criminals used pictures of United States armed forces members to steal money from women around the world.

One of those women is Lilo Schuster. She began looking online to try to find a boyfriend or a husband.

Then one day, Schuster received a promising email from someone on a dating website. The message came from someone who claimed he was a pilot in Afghanistan.

“And it was a widow(er), and he said that he was in the Air Force, that he was fighting the Taliban -- the terrorists -- that he had a, a daughter. I just thought ‘Oh my, my prayers are being answered.’”

The relationship quickly became serious. Schuster said she fell in love. She soon began sending the man emails throughout the day. He sent her poetry and messages saying he loved her. He even sent her pictures of himself in his military clothing.

“As soon as I had the pictures, I would -- this is so stupid -- I would carry them around. I would show people.”

Schuster noticed that the man did not write well. But she remembered her father was an immigrant, and his writing was not very good. So she did not think it was a problem.

But she and her love interest never spoke by telephone. When she asked to do so, the man said he was not permitted to do so.

“We never talked, we never Skyped because his thing was ‘Well, this is top secret, we’re fighting the terrorists, we can’t do anything that would compromise that so I can’t use the phone.’”

After a few weeks, the man told her he needed money to help his daughter go on a school trip. So she sent a few thousand dollars to Britain, where the man said his mother lived with his daughter.

“I’m helping him. This is for our future. It’s embarrassing but that’s the feelings that I was feeling.”

But after she sent the money, the man asked for more. He said he wanted to leave the Air Force and join some of his friends who were starting a small company.

The man told Schuster that the Air Force would not let him remove money from his bank account. He said he needed her help. She was suspicious, but she still sent more money to him.

“You’re so scared. You don’t want to lose them -- you’ll just do anything, and that’s what I did. So I just started to continue to wire money.”

Schuster sent a total of $22,000. Almost immediately after she sent the last amount, he stopped sending her emails.

“My heart just sank and I thought ‘this doesn’t seem right.’”

Chris Grey is with the U.S. Army’s Criminal Investigations Command. He says he has heard stories like Schuster’s many times.

“It’s been just overwhelming. We are dealing with thousands of these. I’ve personally spoken to women who’ve given upwards of $75,000, $80,000 to someone that they’ve never met in person.”

Online criminals are also targeting people in other countries. Grey says women from Japan, Britain and Australia have called his office. He says they thought they were in love with a U.S. service member but were actually being tricked.

Grey says many of these criminals operate from “cyber cafes” in West African countries like Nigeria and Ghana. He says they take photographs of U.S. troops from social media. They then create a story and begin to target women on dating sites.

Grey has some simple advice: “Never send money to someone that you’ve never met, never talked to on the phone.”

Grey says there are several signs to watch for. They include misspellings on documents and mistakes with capitalization. Other signs include using names of organizations that do not exist or using logos that are in disagreement with official images or designs.

Grey says cyber criminals sometimes send documents with U.S. Army logos when the writer claims to be serving in the Navy.

Schuster turned her anger into action. By sharing her story, she says she helped a woman in New Zealand and an American discover that they were being lied to.

“Same story and the same exact pictures were used to these two other women.”

If you suspect you are being tricked by someone online, do not send them money -- especially if they are in another country. You should call police or postal officials.

I’m Christopher Jones-Cruise.

________________________________________________________________

Words in This Story

date – v. to do an activity with someone you have or might have a romantic relationship with; to go on a date or several dates with (someone)

online – adj. done over the Internet

compromise – v. to expose (something) to risk or danger

wire – v. to send (money) by using electronic methods

overwhelming – adj. used to describe something that is so confusing, difficult, etc., that you feel unable to do it

upwards of – adv. more than (an amount or number)

cyber café – n. a café or coffee shop where customers can use computers to search the Internet

misspell – v. to spell (a word or name) incorrectly

capitalize – v. to begin (a word or name) with a capital letter

logo – n. a symbol that is used to identify a company and that appears on its products

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